Electrochemical method of producing single-layer or few-layer graphene sheets

ABSTRACT

A method of producing isolated graphene sheets from a layered graphite, comprising: (a) forming an alkali metal ion-intercalated graphite compound by an electrochemical intercalation which uses a liquid solution of an alkali metal salt dissolved in an organic solvent as both an electrolyte and an intercalate source, layered graphite material as an anode material, and a metal or graphite as a cathode material, and wherein a current is imposed upon a cathode and an anode at a current density for a duration of time sufficient for effecting the electrochemical intercalation of alkali metal ions into interlayer spacing; and (b) exfoliating and separating hexagonal carbon atomic interlayers (graphene planes) from the alkali metal ion-intercalated graphite compound using ultrasonication, thermal shock exposure, exposure to water solution, mechanical shearing treatment, or a combination thereof to produce isolated graphene sheets.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates to a method of producing thin isolated graphene sheets directly from natural graphite mineral or graphite rock.

BACKGROUND

A single-layer graphene sheet is composed of carbon atoms occupying a two-dimensional hexagonal lattice. Multi-layer graphene is a platelet composed of more than one graphene plane. Individual single-layer graphene sheets and multi-layer graphene platelets are herein collectively called nano graphene platelets (NGPs) or graphene materials. NGPs include pristine graphene (essentially 99% of carbon atoms), slightly oxidized graphene (<5% by weight of oxygen), graphene oxide (≤5% by weight of oxygen), slightly fluorinated graphene (<5% by weight of fluorine), graphene fluoride ((≥5% by weight of fluorine), other halogenated graphene, and chemically functionalized graphene.

NGPs have been found to have a range of unusual physical, chemical, and mechanical properties. For instance, graphene was found to exhibit the highest intrinsic strength and highest thermal conductivity of all existing materials. Although practical electronic device applications for graphene (e.g., replacing Si as a backbone in a transistor) are not envisioned to occur within the next 5-10 years, its application as a nano filler in a composite material and an electrode material in energy storage devices is imminent. The availability of processable graphene sheets in large quantities is essential to the success in exploiting composite, energy, and other applications for graphene.

Our research group was among the first to discover graphene [B. Z. Jang and W. C. Huang, “Nano-scaled Graphene Plates,” U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/274,473, submitted on Oct. 21, 2002; now U.S. Pat. No. 7,071,258 (Jul. 4, 2006)]. The processes for producing NGPs and NGP nanocomposites were recently reviewed by us [Bor Z. Jang and A Zhamu, “Processing of Nano Graphene Platelets (NGPs) and NGP Nanocomposites: A Review,” J. Materials Sci. 43 (2008) 5092-5101]. Our research has yielded a process for chemical-free production of isolated nano graphene platelets that is novel in that is does not follow the established methods for production of nano graphene platelets outlined below. In addition, the process is of enhanced utility in that it is cost effective, and provided novel graphene materials with significantly reduced environmental impact. Four main prior-art approaches have been followed to produce NGPs. Their advantages and shortcomings are briefly summarized as follows:

Approach 1: Chemical Formation and Reduction of Graphite Oxide (GO) Platelets

The first approach (FIG. 1) entails treating natural graphite powder with an intercalant and an oxidant (e.g., concentrated sulfuric acid and nitric acid, respectively) to obtain a graphite intercalation compound (GIC) or, actually, graphite oxide (GO). [William S. Hummers, Jr., et al., Preparation of Graphitic Oxide, Journal of the American Chemical Society, 1958, p. 1339.] Prior to intercalation or oxidation, graphite has an inter-graphene plane spacing of approximately 0.335 nm (L_(d)=½d₀₀₂=0.335 nm). With an intercalation and oxidation treatment, the inter-graphene spacing is increased to a value typically greater than 0.6 nm. This is the first expansion stage experienced by the graphite material during this chemical route. The obtained GIC or GO is then subjected to further expansion (often referred to as exfoliation) using either a thermal shock exposure or a solution-based, ultrasonication-assisted graphene layer exfoliation approach.

In the thermal shock exposure approach, the GIC or GO is exposed to a high temperature (typically 800-1,050° C.) for a short period of time (typically 15 to 60 seconds) to exfoliate or expand the GIC or GO for the formation of exfoliated or further expanded graphite, which is typically in the form of a “graphite worm” composed of graphite flakes that are still interconnected with one another. This thermal shock procedure can produce some separated graphite flakes or graphene sheets, but normally the majority of graphite flakes remain interconnected. Typically, the exfoliated graphite or graphite worm is then subjected to a flake separation treatment using air milling, mechanical shearing, or ultrasonication in water. Hence, approach 1 basically entails three distinct procedures: first expansion (oxidation or intercalation), further expansion (or “exfoliation”), and separation.

In the solution-based separation approach, the expanded or exfoliated GO powder is dispersed in water or aqueous alcohol solution, which is subjected to ultrasonication. It is important to note that in these processes, ultrasonification is used after intercalation and oxidation of graphite (i.e., after first expansion) and typically after thermal shock exposure of the resulting GIC or GO (after second expansion). Alternatively, the GO powder dispersed in water is subjected to an ion exchange or lengthy purification procedure in such a manner that the repulsive forces between ions residing in the inter-planar spaces overcome the inter-graphene van der Waals forces, resulting in graphene layer separations.

There are several major problems associated with this conventional chemical production process:

-   -   (1) The process requires the use of large quantities of several         undesirable chemicals, such as sulfuric acid, nitric acid, and         potassium permanganate or sodium chlorate.     -   (2) The chemical treatment process requires a long intercalation         and oxidation time, typically 5 hours to five days.     -   (3) Strong acids consume a significant amount of graphite during         this long intercalation or oxidation process by “eating their         way into the graphite” (converting graphite into carbon dioxide,         which is lost in the process). It is not unusual to lose 20-50%         by weight of the graphite material immersed in strong acids and         oxidizers.     -   (4) Both heat- and solution-induced exfoliation approaches         require a very tedious washing and purification step. For         instance, typically 2.5 kg of water is used to wash and recover         1 gram of GIC, producing huge quantities of waste water that         need to be properly treated.     -   (5) In both the heat- and solution-induced exfoliation         approaches, the resulting products are GO platelets that must         undergo a further chemical reduction treatment to reduce the         oxygen content. Typically even after reduction, the electrical         conductivity of GO platelets remains much lower than that of         pristine graphene. Furthermore, the reduction procedure often         involves the utilization of toxic chemicals, such as hydrazine.     -   (6) Furthermore, the quantity of intercalation solution retained         on the flakes after draining may range from 20 to 150 parts of         solution by weight per 100 parts by weight of graphite flakes         (pph) and more typically about 50 to 120 pph.     -   (7) During the high-temperature exfoliation, the residual         intercalate species (e.g. sulfuric acid and nitric acid)         retained by the flakes decompose to produce various species of         sulfuric and nitrous compounds (e.g., NO_(x) and SO_(x)), which         are undesirable. The effluents require expensive remediation         procedures in order not to have an adverse environmental impact.         The present invention was made to overcome the limitations         outlined above.         Approach 2: Direct Formation of Pristine Nano Graphene Platelets

In 2002, our research team succeeded in isolating single-layer and multi-layer graphene sheets from partially carbonized or graphitized polymeric carbons, which were obtained from a polymer or pitch precursor [B. Z Tang and W. C. Huang, “Nano scaled Graphene Plates,” U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/214,473, submitted on Oct. 21, 2002; now U.S. Pat. No. 7,071,258 (Jul. 4, 2006)]. Mack, et al [“Chemical manufacture of nanostructured materials” U.S. Pat. No. 6,872,330 (Mar. 29, 2005)] developed a process that involved intercalating graphite with potassium metal melt and contacting the resulting K-intercalated graphite with alcohol, producing violently exfoliated graphite containing NGPs. The process must be carefully conducted in a vacuum or an extremely dry glove box environment since pure alkali metals, such as potassium and sodium, are extremely sensitive to moisture and pose an explosion danger. This process is not amenable to the mass production of NGPs. The present invention was made to overcome the limitations outlined above.

Approach 3: Epitaxial Growth and Chemical Vapor Deposition of Nano Graphene Sheets on Inorganic Crystal Surfaces

Small scale production of ultra-thin graphene sheets on a substrate can be obtained by thermal decomposition-based epitaxial growth and a laser desorption-ionization technique. [Walt A. DeHeer, Claire Berger, Phillip N. First, “Patterned thin film graphite devices and method for making same” U.S. Pat. No. 7,327,000 B2 (Jun. 12, 2003)] Epitaxial films of graphite with only one or a few atomic layers are of technological and scientific significance due to their peculiar characteristics and great potential as a device substrate. However, these processes are not suitable for mass production of isolated graphene sheets for composite materials and energy storage applications.

Approach 4: The Bottom-Up Approach (Synthesis of Graphene from Small Molecules)

Yang, et al. [“Two-dimensional Graphene Nano-ribbons,” J. Am. Chem. Soc. 130 (2008) 4216-17] synthesized nano graphene sheets with lengths of up to 12 nm using a method that began with Suzuki-Miyaura coupling of 1,4-diiodo-2,3,5,6-tetraphenyl-benzene with 4-bromophenylboronic acid. The resulting hexaphenylbenzene derivative was further derivatized and ring-fused into small graphene sheets. This is a slow process that thus far has produced very small graphene sheets.

Hence, an urgent need exists to have a graphene production process that requires a reduced amount of undesirable chemical (or elimination of these chemicals all together), shortened process time, less energy consumption, lower degree of graphene oxidation, reduced or eliminated effluents of undesirable chemical species into the drainage (e.g., sulfuric acid) or into the air (e.g., SO₂ and NO₂). The process should be able to produce more pristine (less oxidized and damaged), more electrically conductive, and larger/wider graphene sheets.

It may be noted that Kang, et al [F. Kang, “Formic Acid-Graphite Intercalation Compound,” U.S. Pat. No. 5,698,088 (Dec. 16, 1997)] used an electrochemical method to intercalate natural flake graphite with formic acid for the purpose of producing flexible graphite products. Zhamu, et al. (U.S. Pat. No. 8,524,067) used an electrochemical method to intercalate natural graphite with carboxylic acid for the purpose of producing graphene sheets. These prior art processes all begin with highly purified natural graphite, not directly from graphite rock or mined graphite ore.

Natural graphite is obtained by mining graphite-rich ore (commonly referred to as graphite rock) and milling it down to the consistency of sand to allow the graphite to be removed. The milled material is then subjected to purification treatments that typically include a series of flotation processes to extract the graphite. These procedures are known to be highly polluting to the environment. Loh, et al. (U.S. Pat. No. 9,221,687, issued on Dec. 29, 2015 and US Pub. No. 2013/0102084) discloses an electrochemical method of producing expanded graphite and graphene sheets from a slurry composed of (a) 15-20 wt. % of graphite rock, (b) 0.1-5 wt. % of graphite flake, and (c) 70-80 wt. % of an electrolyte consisting of 80-160 g/L of LiClO₄ (5-10 wt. %) in propylene carbonate. Such a process still requires the use of some graphite flakes (purified graphite or expanded graphite) in the reacting slurry. Furthermore, the requirement to have a low proportion (only 15-20 wt. %) of graphite rock and a high electrolyte proportion (70-80 wt. %) in an electrochemical slurry implies that this is not an economically viable process dues to the low production rate and high electrolyte costs.

Clearly, a need exists to have a more cost-effective process that produces graphene sheets (particularly single-layer graphene and few-layer graphene sheets) directly from graphite rock. Such a process not only avoids the environment-polluting graphite ore purification procedures but also makes it possible to have low-cost graphene available. As of today, the graphene, as an industry, has yet to emerge mainly due to the extremely high graphene costs that have thus far prohibited graphene-based products from being widely accepted in the marketplace.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The present invention provides a method of producing isolated graphene sheets having an average thickness smaller than 30 nm (preferably and typically single-layer graphene or few-layer graphene) directly from a layered graphite material having hexagonal carbon atomic interlayers (graphene planes) with an interlayer spacing (inter-graphene plane spacing). The method comprises: (a) forming an alkali metal ion-intercalated graphite compound by an electrochemical intercalation procedure which is conducted in an intercalation reactor, wherein said reactor contains (i) a liquid solution electrolyte comprising an alkali metal salt dissolved in an organic solvent; (ii) an anode that contains said layered graphite material as an active material in ionic contact with the liquid solution electrolyte; and (iii) a cathode in ionic contact with the liquid solution electrolyte, and wherein a current is imposed upon a cathode and an anode at a current density for a duration of time sufficient for effecting electrochemical intercalation of alkali metal ions into the interlayer spacing; and (b) exfoliating and separating the hexagonal carbon atomic interlayers (isolated graphene sheets) from the alkali metal ion-intercalated graphite compound using ultrasonication alone, thermal shock exposure alone, exposure to water solution alone, or a combination of thermal shock exposure and a mechanical shearing treatment to produce the isolated graphene sheets.

In some embodiments, the organic solvent is selected from 1,3-dioxolane (DOL), 1,2-dimethoxyethane (DME), tetraethylene glycol dimethylether (TEGDME), poly(ethylene glycol) dimethyl ether (PEGDME), diethylene glycol dibutyl ether (DEGDBE), 2-ethoxyethyl ether (EEE), sulfone, sulfolane, ethylene carbonate (EC), dimethyl carbonate (DMC), methylethyl carbonate (MEC), diethyl carbonate (DEC), ethyl propionate, methyl propionate, gamma-butyrolactone (γ-BL), acetonitrile (AN), ethyl acetate (EA), propyl formate (PF), methyl formate (MF), toluene, xylene, methyl acetate (MA), fluoroethylene carbonate (FEC), vinylene carbonate (VC), allyl ethyl carbonate (AEC), a hydrofloroether, or a combination thereof.

Preferably, the layered graphite material is selected from natural graphite, synthetic graphite, highly oriented pyrolytic graphite, graphite fiber, graphitic nano-fiber, graphite rock or graphite mineral, or a combination thereof.

Preferably, the alkali metal salt is selected from sodium perchlorate (NaClO₄), potassium perchlorate (KClO₄), sodium hexafluorophosphate (NaPF₆), potassium hexafluorophosphate (KPF₆), sodium borofluoride (NaBF₄), potassium borofluoride (KBF₄), sodium hexafluoroarsenide, potassium hexafluoroarsenide, sodium trifluoro-metasulfonate (NaCF₃SO₃), potassium trifluoro-metasulfonate (KCF₃SO₃), bis-trifluoromethyl sulfonylimide sodium (NaN(CF₃SO₂)₂), sodium trifluoromethanesulfonimide (NaTFSI), bis-trifluoromethyl sulfonylimide potassium (KN(CF₃SO₂)₂), a sodium ionic liquid salt, lithium perchlorate (LiClO₄), lithium hexafluorophosphate (LiPF₆), lithium borofluoride (LiBF₄), lithium hexafluoroarsenide (LiAsF₆), lithium trifluoro-metasulfonate (LiCF₃SO₃), bis-trifluoromethyl sulfonylimide lithium (LiN(CF₃SO₂)₂), lithium bis(oxalato)borate (LiBOB), lithium oxalyldifluoroborate (LiBF₂C₂O₄), lithium oxalyldifluoroborate (LiBF₂C₂O₄), lithium nitrate (LiNO₃), Li-Fluoroalkyl-Phosphates (LiPF₃(CF₂CF₃)₃), lithium bisperfluoro-ethysulfonylimide (LiBETI), lithium bis(trifluorornethanesulphonyl)imide, lithium bis(fluorosulphonyl)imide, lithium trifluoromethanesulfonimide (LiTFSI), an ionic liquid lithium salt, or a combination thereof.

In some embodiments, the layered graphite material contains multiple graphite particles dispersed in the liquid solution electrolyte and disposed in an anode compartment, which multiple graphite particles are supported or confined by an anode current collector in electronic contact with the layered graphite material and wherein the anode compartment and said multiple graphite particles supported thereon or confined therein are not in electronic contact with said cathode. The multiple graphite particles may be simply confined in a porous cage at the anode side. The porous cage is immersed in the liquid solution electrolyte so that these multiple graphite particles remain essentially dispersed in the electrolyte. Preferably, the multiple graphite particles are clustered together to form a network of electron-conducting pathways, electronically connected to the current collector. The current collector is made of an electrically conductive material (e.g. Cu foil, Cu foam, graphite foam, Ni foam, etc.).

In some embodiments, the invention provides a method of producing isolated graphene sheets having an average thickness smaller than 30 nm (typically <10 nm and, mostly, single-layer or few-layer graphene) directly from a layered graphite material having hexagonal carbon atomic interlayers (graphene planes) with an interlayer spacing (inter-graphene plane space). The method comprises:

-   (a) forming an alkali metal ion-intercalated graphite compound by an     electrochemical intercalation procedure which is conducted in an     intercalation reactor (e.g. a chamber, a tank, or other container),     wherein said reactor contains (i) a liquid solution electrolyte     comprising an alkali metal salt dissolved in a liquid organic     solvent; (ii) an anode that contains said layered graphite material     as an active material in ionic contact with the liquid solution     electrolyte; and (iii) a cathode in ionic contact with the liquid     solution electrolyte, and wherein a current is imposed upon a     cathode and an anode at a current density for a duration of time     sufficient for effecting electrochemical intercalation of alkali     metal ions into the interlayer spacing, wherein the alkali metal     salt is selected from sodium perchlorate (NaClO₄), potassium     perchlorate (KClO₄), sodium hexafluorophosphate (NaPF₆), potassium     hexafluorophosphate (KPF₆), sodium borofluoride (NaBF₄), potassium     borofluoride (KBF₄), sodium hexafluoroarsenide, potassium     hexafluoroarsenide, sodium trifluoro-metasulfonate (NaCF₃SO₃),     potassium trifluoro-metasulfonate (KCF₃SO₃), bis-trifluoromethyl     sulfonylimide sodium (NaN(CF₃SO₂)₂), sodium     trifluoromethanesulfonimide (NaTFSI), bis-trifluoromethyl     sulfonylimide potassium (KN(CF₃SO₂)₂), a sodium ionic liquid salt,     lithium hexafluorophosphate (LiPF₆), lithium borofluoride (LiBF₄),     lithium hexafluoroarsenide (LiAsF₆), lithium trifluoro-metasulfonate     (LiCF₃SO₃), bis-trifluoromethyl sulfonylimide lithium     (LiN(CF₃SO₂)₂), lithium bis(oxalato)borate (LiBOB), lithium     oxalyldifluoroborate (LiBF₂C₂O₄), lithium oxalyldifluoroborate     (LiBF₂C₂O₄), lithium nitrate (LiNO₃), Li-Fluoroalkyl-Phosphates     (LiPF₃(CF₂CF₃)₃), lithium bisperfluoro-ethysulfonylimidc (LiBETI),     lithium bis(trifluoromethanesulphonyl)imide, lithium     bis(fluorosulphonyl)imide, lithium trifluoromethanesulfonimide     (LiTFSI), an ionic liquid lithium salt, or a combination thereof;     and -   (b) exfoliating and separating the hexagonal carbon atomic     interlayers (graphene sheets) from the alkali metal ion-intercalated     graphite compound using ultrasonication alone, thermal shock     exposure alone, exposure to water solution alone, or a combination     of thermal shock exposure and a mechanical shearing treatment to     produce isolated graphene sheets. The mechanical shearing treatment     may comprise using air milling, air jet milling, ball milling,     rotating-blade mechanical shearing, ultrasonication, or a     combination thereof. In a preferred embodiment, thermal shock     exposure comprises heating said intercalated graphite to a     temperature in the range of 300-1,200° C. for a period of 15 seconds     to 2 minutes.

In some preferred embodiments, the organic solvent is selected flow 1,3-dioxolane (DOL), 1,2-dimethoxyethane (DME), tetraethylene glycol dimethylether (TEGDME), poly(ethylene glycol) dimethyl ether (PEGDME), diethylene glycol dibutyl ether (DEGDBE), 2-ethoxyethyl ether (EEE), sulfone, sulfolane, ethylene carbonate (EC), propylene carbonate (PC), dimethyl carbonate (DMC), methylethyl carbonate (MEC), diethyl carbonate (DEC), ethyl propionate, methyl propionate, gamma-butyrolactone (γ-BL), acetonitrile (AN), ethyl acetate (EA), propyl formate (PF), methyl formate (MF), toluene, xylene, methyl acetate (MA), fluoroethylene carbonate (FEC), vinylene carbonate (VC), allyl ethyl carbonate (AEC), a hydrofloroether, or a combination thereof.

Again, preferably, the layered graphite material is selected from natural graphite, synthetic graphite, highly oriented pyioltic graphite, graphite fiber, graphitic nano-fiber, graphite rock, or a combination thereof. In a desirable embodiment, the layered graphite material contains graphite rock or mined graphite ore only, and no other graphite material is included in the anode or dispersed in the liquid solution (the electrolyte).

The imposing current used in the electrochemical reaction preferably provides a current density in the range of 1 to 600 A/m², more preferably in the range of 20 to 400 A/m², and most preferably in the range of 100 to 300 A/m². The exfoliation step preferably comprises heating the intercalated graphite to a temperature in the range of 300-1,250° C. for a duration of 10 seconds to 2 minutes, most preferably at a temperature in the range of 400-1,000° C. for a duration of 30-60 seconds.

Preferably, the alkali metal ion-intercalated graphite compound contains Stage-1 and/or Stage-2 graphite intercalation compounds. Stage-1 graphite intercalation compounds are preferred. A Stage-n graphite intercalation compound is a graphite material wherein there is one layer of intercalate species (or intercalant) for each n graphene layers.

Typically, the produced graphene sheets contain mostly single-layer graphene and/or few-layer graphene having 2-10 hexagonal carbon atomic interlayers or graphene planes.

In a typical operation, the method induces intercalation of lithium, sodium, and/or potassium ions (all positive ions, Li⁺, Na⁺, and K⁺). However, if so desired, the electrochemical potential at the anode and that at the cathode and the current density may be adjusted in such a manner that negative ions (anions), the solvent, or solvated ions can be intercalated into inter-graphene spaces as well.

The method may comprise additional steps of electrochemical intercalation of the multi-layer graphene sheets to obtain a further intercalated compound (intercalated multi-layer graphene sheets), and exfoliation of the further intercalated compound to produce thinner graphene sheets (mostly single-layer), with or without a subsequent mechanical shearing treatment. Specifically, the method may further comprise a step of re-intercalating the isolated graphene sheets using an electrochemical or chemical intercalation method to obtain intercalated graphene sheets and a step of exfoliating and separating the intercalated graphene sheets to produce substantially all single-layer graphene sheets using ultrasonication, thermal shock exposure, exposure to water solution, mechanical shearing treatment, or a combination thereof.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 A flow chart showing an embodiment of the presently invented method of producing isolated graphene sheets.

FIG. 2 Schematic drawing of an apparatus for electrochemical intercalation of graphite.

FIG. 3(A) SEM image of graphene sheets produced by the presently invented electrochemical intercalation method.

FIG. 3(B) Transmission electron micrograph of graphene sheets produced by conventional chemical intercalation and oxidation of graphite using strong sulfuric acid and highly oxidizing agent.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS

Carbon materials can assume an essentially amorphous structure (glassy carbon), a highly organized crystal (graphite), or a whole range of intermediate structures that are characterized in that various proportions and sizes of graphite crystallites and defects are dispersed in an amorphous matrix. Typically, a graphite crystallite is composed of a number of graphene sheets or basal planes that are bonded together through van der Waals forces in the c-axis direction, the direction perpendicular to the basal plane. These graphite crystallites are typically micron- or nanometer-sized. The graphite crystallites are dispersed in or connected by crystal defects or an amorphous phase in a graphite particle, which can be a graphite flake, carbon/graphite fiber segment, carbon/graphite whisker, or carbon/graphite nano-fiber. In the case of a carbon or graphite fiber segment, the graphene plates may be a part of a characteristic “turbostratic structure.” Basically, a graphite material is composed of many graphene planes (hexagonal carbon atomic interlayers) stacked together having inter-planar spacing. These graphene planes can be exfoliated and separated to obtain isolated graphene sheets that can each contain one graphene plane or several graphene planes of hexagonal carbon atoms.

One preferred specific embodiment of the present invention is a method of producing isolated graphene sheets, also called nano-scaled graphene platelets (NGPs), from a graphitic material (preferably directly from graphite rock or graphite ore without purification). Each graphene plane, also referred to as a graphene sheet or basal plane, comprises a two-dimensional hexagonal structure of carbon atoms. Each graphene sheet has a length and a width parallel to the graphene plane and a thickness orthogonal to the graphene plane. By definition, the thickness of an NGP is 100 nanometers (nm) or smaller (more typically <10 nm and most typically and desirably <3.4 nm), with a single-sheet NGP (single-layer graphene) being as thin as 0.34 nm. The length and width of a NGP are typically between 1: m and 20 μm, but could be longer or shorter. For certain applications, both length and width are smaller than 1 μm.

Generally speaking, as schematically shown in FIG. 1, a method has been developed for converting a layered or laminar graphite material 10 to isolated graphene sheets 16 having an average thickness smaller than 30 nm, more typically smaller than 10 nm, and further more typically thinner than 3.4 nm (in many cases, mostly single-layer graphene). The method comprises (a) forming an alkali metal ion-intercalated graphite compound 12 by an electrochemical intercalation procedure, which uses a liquid solution (composed of an alkali metal salt dissolved in an organic solvent) as both an electrolyte and an intercalate source, the layered graphite material 10 as an anode material, and a metal or graphite (preferably alkali metal impregnated metal or graphite foam) as a cathode material, and wherein a current is imposed upon the cathode and the anode at a current density for a duration of time sufficient for effecting the electrochemical intercalation; and (b) exposing the alkali metal-intercalated graphite compound 12 to a thermal shock, a water solution exposure, and/or an ultrasonication (or other mechanical shearing) treatment.

In this Step (b), thermal shock exposure may be conducted if some organic species have been intercalated into inter-graphene plane spaces to produce separated graphene sheets. If the anode contains Stage-I graphite intercalation compounds, thermal shock alone can produce separated graphene sheets 16. Otherwise, thermal shock leads to the formation of exfoliated graphite 14 (also referred to as graphite worms), which is then subjected a mechanical shearing treatment or ultrasonication to produce the desired isolated graphene sheets 16. If the graphite intercalation compounds contain mainly alkali metal ions (Li, Na, and/or K) residing in inter-graphene plane spaces, the resulting alkali metal-intercalated graphite compounds may be immersed in water or water-alcohol solution (with or without sonication) to effect exfoliation and separation of graphene sheets.

The exfoliation step preferably comprises heating the intercalated graphite to a temperature in the range of 300-1,200° C. for a duration of 10 seconds to 2 minutes, most preferably at a temperature in the range of 600-1,000° C. for a duration of 30-60 seconds. The exfoliation step in the instant invention does not involve the evolution of undesirable species, such as NO_(x) and SO_(x), which are common by-products of exfoliating conventional sulfuric or nitric acid-intercalated graphite compounds.

Schematically shown in FIG. 2 is an apparatus that can be used for electrochemical intercalation of graphite according to a preferred embodiment of the present invention. The apparatus comprises a container 32 to accommodate electrodes and electrolyte. The anode is comprised of multiple graphite particles 40 that are dispersed in a liquid solution electrolyte (e.g., a NaClO₄+propylene carbonate, also an intercalate source) and are supported by a porous anode supporting element 34, preferably a porous metal plate, such as nickel, titanium, or stainless steel. The graphite particles 40 preferably form a continuous network of electron-conducting pathways with respect to the anode support plate 34, but are accessible to the intercalate. In some preferred embodiments, such a network of electron-conducting pathways may be achieved by dispersing and packing >20% by wt. of graphite rock or graphite ore (preferably >30% by wt. and more preferably >40% by wt.), plus some optional conductive fillers, in the electrolyte. An electrically insulating, porous separator plate 38 (e.g., Teflon fabric or glass fiber mat) is placed between the anode and the cathode 36 (e.g., a porous graphite impregnated with Li, Na, and/or K) or a Li/Na/K metal plate) to prevent internal short-circuiting. A DC current source 46 is used to provide a current to the anode support element 34 and the cathode 36. The imposing current used in the electrochemical reaction preferably provides a current density in the range of 50 to 600 A/m², most preferably in the range of 100 to 400 A/m². Fresh electrolyte (intercalate) may be supplied from an electrolyte source (not shown) through a pipe 48 and a control valve 50. Excess electrolyte may be drained through a valve 52. In some embodiments, the electrolyte can contain the graphite material to be intercalated dispersed therein and an additional amount of this electrolyte (appearing like a slurry) may be continuously or intermittently introduced into the intercalation chamber. This will make a continuous process.

Thus, in some embodiments, the invention provides a method of producing isolated graphene sheets having an average thickness smaller than 10 nm directly from a layered graphite material having hexagonal carbon atomic interlayers with an interlayer spacing, the method comprising:

-   (a) forming an alkali metal ion-intercalated graphite compound in an     electrochemical intercalation reactor, wherein the reactor contains     at least an anode, a cathode, and a liquid solution electrolyte in     physical contact with both the anode and the cathode, wherein the     liquid solution electrolyte is composed of an alkali metal salt     dissolved in an organic solvent and the layered graphite material     (to be intercalated) contains milled graphite rock or graphite     mineral dispersed in the liquid solution electrolyte at a     concentration higher than 20% by weight (preferably higher than 30%,     further preferably >40%, even more preferably higher than 50%, and     most preferably >60%), and wherein a current is imposed upon the     cathode and the anode at a current density for a duration of time     sufficient to enable electrochemical intercalation of alkali metal     ions into the interlayer spacing; and -   (b) exfoliating and separating the hexagonal carbon atomic     interlayers from the alkali metal ion-intercalated graphite compound     using ultrasonication, thermal shock exposure, exposure to water     solution, mechanical shearing treatment, or a combination thereof to     produce isolated graphene sheets.     Preferably, the concentration of the milled graphite rock or     graphite mineral in the liquid solution electrolyte is sufficiently     high to achieve a network of electron-conducting pathways, which are     in electronic contact with an anode (e.g. via an anode current     collector), but not with a cathode.

In an alternative electrochemical intercalation configuration, all the graphite materials to be intercalated and then exfoliated (e.g. graphite rook, natural graphite, artificial graphite, graphite fibers, etc.) may be formed into a rod or plate that serves as an anode electrode. An alkali metal or alkali metal-containing rod or plate serves as a cathode, and a liquid solution containing alkali metal salt dissolved in an organic solvent serves as the electrolyte. In this alternative configuration, no graphite material to be intercalated (e.g. no graphite rock, graphite mineral or mined graphite ore) is dispersed in the liquid electrolyte. A current is then imposed to the anode and the cathode to allow for electrochemical intercalation of alkali metal ions (Li⁺, Na⁺, and/or K⁺) into the anode active material (the graphite material to be exfoliated) to produce the alkali metal-intercalated graphite, which is then exfoliated by using the procedures described in step (b).

The layered graphite material to be intercalated in all the aforementioned electrochemical intercalation configurations may be selected from milled graphite rock (unpurified graphite ore or graphite mineral), natural graphite (purified), synthetic graphite, highly oriented pyrolytic graphite, graphite fiber, graphitic nano-fiber, graphite oxide, graphite fluoride, chemically modified graphite, expandable graphite, expanded graphite, or a combination thereof.

The mechanical shearing treatment, used to further separate graphite flakes and possibly reduce the flake size, preferably comprises using air milling (including air jet milling), ball milling, mechanical shearing (including rotating blade fluid grinding), any fluid energy based size-reduction process, ultrasonication, or a combination thereof.

Preferably, the alkali metal salt is selected from sodium perchlorate (NaClO₄), potassium perchlorate (KClO₄), sodium hexafluorophosphate (NaPF₆), potassium hexafluorophosphate (KPF₆), sodium borofluoride (NaBF₄), potassium borofluoride (KBF₄), sodium hexafluoroarsenide, potassium hexafluoroarsenide, sodium trifluoro-metasulfonate (NaCF₃SO₃), potassium trifluoro-metasulfonate (KCF₃SO₃), bis-trifluoromethyl sulfonylimide sodium (NaN(CF₃SO₂)₂), sodium trifluoromethanesulfonimide (NaTFSI), bis-trifluoromethyl sulfonylimide potassium (KN(CF₃SO₂)₂), a sodium ionic liquid salt, lithium perchlorate (LiClO₄), lithium hexafluorophosphate (LiPF₆), lithium borofluoride (LiBF₄), lithium hexafluoroarsenide (LiAsF₆), lithium trifluoro-metasulfonate (LiCF₃SO₃), bis-trifluoromethyl sulfonylimide lithium (LiN(CF₃SO₂)₂), lithium bis(oxalato)borate (LiBOB), lithium oxalyldifluoroborate (LiBF₂C₂O₄), lithium oxalyldifluoroborate (LiBF₂C₂O₄), lithium nitrate (LiNO₃), Li-Fluoroalkyl-Phosphates (LiPF₃(CF₂CF₃)₃), lithium bisperfluoro-ethysulfonylimide (LiBETI), lithium bis(trifluoromethanesulphonyl)imide, lithium bis(fluorosulphonyl)imide, lithium trifluoromethanesulfonimide (LiTFST), an ionic liquid lithium salt, or a combination thereof.

Preferably, the organic solvent is selected from 1,3-dioxolane (DOL), 1,2-dimethoxyethane (DME), tetraethylene glycol dimethylether (TEGDME), poly(ethylene glycol) dimethyl ether (PEGDME), diethylene glycol dibutyl ether (DEGDBE), 2-ethoxyethyl ether (EEE), sulfone, sulfolane, propylene carbonate, ethylene carbonate (EC), dimethyl carbonate (DMC), methylethyl carbonate (MEC), diethyl carbonate (DEC), ethyl propionate, methyl propionate, gamma-butyrolactone (γ-BL), acetonitrile (AN), ethyl acetate (EA), propyl formate (PF), methyl formate (MF), toluene, xylene, methyl acetate (MA), fluoroethylene carbonate (FEC), vinylene carbonate (VC), allyl ethyl carbonate (AEC), a hydrofloroether, or a combination thereof. It is quite unexpected that essentially all of these solvents can be used in the present electrochemical intercalation method.

It is quite surprising that sodium ions and potassium ions, albeit significantly larger than lithium ions in terms of ionic radii, can be intercalated into all kinds of graphite materials using the instant electrochemical configurations and method. Further unexpectedly, mixed ions (e.g. Li⁺+Na⁺, or Li⁺+K⁺) intercalated into inter-graphene plane spacing of a graphite material are more effective than single-ion species (e.g. Li⁺ only) in exfoliating graphite to form thinner graphene sheets.

We have found that the invented electrochemical intercalation (with certain alkali metal salts and certain solvents) and thermal exfoliation can led to the formation of NGPs with an average thickness smaller than 5 nm. However, stage-2 and stage-3 graphite intercalation compounds can lead to graphene platelets thicker than 5 nm. In order to further reduce the platelet thickness, we have conducted further studies and found that repeated electrochemical intercalations/exfoliations are an effective method of producing ultra-thin, nano-scaled graphene platelets with an average thickness smaller than 2 nm or 5 graphene sheets and, in many cases, mostly single-layer graphene.

It may be noted that, in a traditional graphite intercalation compound (GIC) obtained by intercalation of a laminar graphite material, the intercalant species may form a complete or partial layer in an inter-layer space or gallery. If there always exists one graphene layer between two neighboring intercalant layers, the resulting graphite is referred to as a Stage-1 GIC (i.e. on average, there is one intercalation layer per one graphene plane). If n graphene layers exist between two intercalant layers, we have a Stage-n GIC. Alkali metal-intercalated graphite compounds were found to be stage-2, stage-3, stage-4, or stage-5, depending on the type of carboxylic acid used. It is generally believed that a necessary condition for the formation of all single-layer graphene is to have a perfect Stage-1 GIC for exfoliation. Even with a Stage-1 GIC, not all of the graphene layers get exfoliated for reasons that remain unclear. Similarly, exfoliation of a Stage-n GIC (with n>5) tends to lead to a wide distribution of NGP thicknesses (mostly much greater than n layers). In other words, exfoliation of Stage-5 GICs often yields NGPs much thicker than 10 or 20 layers. Hence, a major challenge is to be able to consistently produce NGPs with well-controlled dimensions (preferably ultra-thin) from acid-intercalated graphite. In this context, it was surprising for us to discover that the instant method can consistently lead to the formation of few-layer graphene and/or single-layer graphene only. The production yield is typically higher than 70%, more typically higher than 80%, and most typically higher than 90%.

The following examples serve to provide the best modes of practice for the present invention and should not be construed as limiting the scope of the invention:

Example 1: Production of Isolated Graphene Sheets from Synthetic Graphite

One gram of meso-carbon micro-beads (MCMBs), having an average diameter <15 μm, were used as the anode material and 1,000 mL of a liquid solution electrolyte (typically 0.5-3 M of an alkali metal salt in an organic solvent). Ethylene carbonate (EC), propylene carbonate (PC), and diethyl carbonate (DEC) were used as the solvent. The alkali metal salts used in this example include lithium perchlorate (LiClO₄), sodium perchlorate (NaClO₄), potassium perchlorate (KClO₄), and their mixtures.

The anode supporting element is a stainless steel plate and the cathode is a graphite foam of approximately 4 cm in diameter and 0.2 cm in thickness, impregnated with lithium or sodium. The separator, a glass fiber fabric, was used to separate the cathode plate from the MCMB particles and to compress these particles down against the anode supporting element to ensure that the MCMBs are in electrical connection with the anode supporting element to serve as the anode. The electrodes, electrolyte, and separator are contained in a Buchner-type funnel to form an electrochemical cell. The anode supporting element, the cathode, and the separator are porous to permit intercalate (contained in the electrolyte) to saturate the graphite and to pass through the cell from top to bottom.

The MCMBs were subjected to an electrochemical charging treatment (i.e. charging alkali metal ions into inter-graphene plane spaces in a MCMB at a current of 0.5 amps (current density of about 0.04 amps/cm²) and at a cell voltage of about 4-6 volts for 2-5 hours. These values may be varied with changes in cell configuration and makeup. Following electrochemical charging treatment, the resulting intercalated particles (beads) were washed with water and dried.

Subsequently, some of the alkali metal ion-intercalated compound was transferred to a water bath. The compound, upon contact with water, was found to induce extremely rapid and high expansions of graphite crystallites. Subsequently, some portion of this expanded/exfoliated graphite solution was subjected to sonication. Various samples were collected with their morphology studied by SEM and TEM observations and their specific surface areas measured by the well-known BET method.

TABLE 1 Results of varying types of alkali metal salts and solvents. Starting Specific surface Sample graphite Alkali metal salt Solvent area (m²/g) Comments M-1 MCMBs LiClO₄ EC 720 >65% single-layer M-2 MCMBs NaClO₄ EC 810 >80% single-layer M-3 MCMBs KClO₄ EC 625 >40% single-layer M-4 MCMBs LiClO₄ + NaClO₄ EC 885 >85% single-layer M-5 MCMBs LiClO₄ + KClO₄ EC 730 >70% single-layer M-6 MCMBs NaClO₄ PC 683 >60% single-layer M-7 MCMBs LiClO₄ PC 640 >50% single-layer

Several important observations may be made from the data in this table:

-   -   1) Larger alkali metal ions (Na⁺ and K⁺), relative to Li⁺, are         also effective intercalant when it comes to the production of         ultra-thin graphene sheets. Actually, Na⁺ ions are more         effective than Li⁺ in this aspect.     -   2) A mixture of two alkali metal salts (e.g. LiClO₄+NaClO₄) is         more effective than single components alone in producing         single-layer graphene sheets.     -   3) EC appears to be more effective than PC.     -   4) Products containing a majority of graphene sheets being         single-layer graphene can be readily produced using the         presently invented electrochemical intercalation method.         Approximately one half of these NGPs were then subjected to         re-intercalation under comparable electrochemical intercalation         conditions to obtain re-intercalated NGPs. Subsequently, these         re-intercalated NGPs were transferred to an ultrasonication bath         ultra-thin NGPs. Electron microscopic examinations of selected         samples indicate that the majority of the resulting NGPs are         single-layer graphene sheets.

Comparative Example 1: Sulfuric-Nitric Acid-Intercalated MCMBs

One gram of MCMB beads as used in Example 1 were intercalated with a mixture of sulfuric acid, nitric acid, and potassium permanganate at a weight ratio of 4:1:0.05 (graphite-to-intercalate ratio of 1:3) for four hours. Upon completion of the intercalation reaction, the mixture was poured into deionized water and filtered. The sample was then washed with 5% HCl solution to remove most of the sulfate ions and residual salt and then repeatedly rinsed with deionized water until the pH of the filtrate was approximately 5. The dried sample was then exfoliated at 1,000° C. for 45 seconds. The resulting NGPs were examined using SEM and TEM and their length (largest lateral dimension) and thickness were measured. It was observed that the presently invented electrochemical intercalation method leads to graphene sheets of comparable thickness distribution, but much larger lateral dimensions (3-5 μm vs. 200-300 nm). Graphene sheets were made into graphene paper layer using a well-known vacuum-assisted filtration procedure. The graphene paper prepared from hydrazine-reduced graphene oxide (made from sulfuric-nitric acid-intercalated MCMBs) exhibits electrical conductivity values of 25-350 S/cm. The graphene paper prepared from the relatively oxidation-free graphene sheets made by the presently invented electrochemical intercalation exhibit conductivity values of 2,500-4,500 S/cm.

Example 2: Graphene Sheets from Milled Graphite Rock (Graphite Ore or Mineral)

Samples of two grams each of graphite rock containing 56% natural flake graphite were milled down to 50 mesh particle size. The powder samples were subjected to similar electrochemical intercalation conditions described in Example 1, but with different alkali metal salts and solvents. The graphite rock powder samples were subjected to an electrochemical intercalation treatment at a current of 0.5 amps (current density of about 0.04 amps/cm²) and at a cell voltage of about 6 volts for 3 hours. Following the electrochemical intercalation treatment, the resulting intercalated flake was removed from the electrochemical reactor and dried.

Subsequently, the intercalated compound was transferred to a furnace pre-set at a temperature of 950° C. for 45 seconds. The compound was found to induce rapid and high expansions of graphite crystallites with an expansion ratio of greater than 100. After a mechanical shearing treatment in a high-shear rotating blade device for 15 minutes, the resulting NGPs exhibit a Thickness ranging from single-layer graphene sheets to 8-layer graphene sheets based on SEM and TEM observations. Results are summarized in Table 2 below:

TABLE 2 Results of varying types of alkali metal salts and solvents. Starting Alkali metal Specific surface Sample graphite salt Solvent area (m²/g) Comments R-1 Graphite rock LiPF₆ PC 712 >65% single-layer R-2 Graphite rock LiPF₆ + NaPF₆ PC 780 >75% single-layer R-3 Graphite rock LiBF₄ PC 670 >60% single-layer R-4 Graphite rock LiTFSI PC + EC 675 >60% single-layer R-5 Graphite rock LiPF₆ DOL 630 >50% single-layer R-6 Graphite rock LiPF₆ DME 665 >60% single-layer R-7 Graphite rock LiPF₆ PC + DEC 640 >50% single-layer

It may be noted that the interstitial spaces between two hexagonal carbon atomic planes (graphene planes) are only approximately 0.28 nm (the plane-to-plane distance is 0.34 nm). A skilled person in the art would predict that larger molecules and/or ions (K⁺ vs. Li⁺) cannot intercalate into interstitial spaces of a layered graphite material. After intensive R&D efforts we found that electrochemical methods with a proper combination of an alkali metal salt and solvent, and an adequate magnitude of the imposing current density could be used to open up the interstitial spaces to accommodate much larger molecules and/or ions.

Re-intercalation of these NGPs and subsequent exfoliation resulted in further reduction in platelet thickness, with an average thickness of approximately 0.75 nm (approximately 2 graphene planes on average).

Example 3: Production of Isolated Graphene Sheets from Electrochemical Interaction, Exfoliation, and Separation of Purified Natural Graphite

Samples of two grams each of purified natural graphite powder were milled down to 50 mesh particle size. The powder samples were subjected to similar electrochemical intercalation conditions described in Example 1, but with different alkali metal salts and solvents. The natural graphite samples were subjected to an electrochemical intercalation treatment at a current of 0.5 amps (current density of about 0.04 amps/cm²) and at a cell voltage of about 6 volts for 3 hours. Following the electrochemical intercalation treatment, the resulting intercalated graphite (mostly Stage-1 GIC with some Stage-2) was removed from the electrochemical reactor and dried.

Subsequently, the intercalated compound was transferred to a furnace pre-set at a temperature of 1,050° C. for 60 seconds. The compound was found to induce rapid and high expansions of graphite crystallites with an expansion ratio of greater than 200. After a mechanical shearing treatment in a high-shear rotating blade device for 15 minutes, the resulting NGPs exhibit a thickness ranging from single-layer graphene sheets to 5-layer graphene sheets based on SEM and TEM observations. Results are summarized in Table 3 below. It is clear that a wide variety of alkali metal salts and solvents can be utilized in the presently invented method, making this a versatile and environmentally benign approach (e.g. as opposed to the conventional method using strong sulfuric acid and oxidizing agents).

TABLE 3 Results of varying types of alkali metal salts and solvents. Starting Specific surface Sample graphite Alkali metal salt Solvent area (m²/g) Comments N-1 Natural LiClO₄ EC + VC 720 >65% single-layer graphite, NG N-2 NG NaClO₄ PC + VC 810 >80% single-layer N-3 NG LiBOB EC 635 >45% single-layer N-4 NG LiClO₄ + LiNO₃ EC + PC 824 >80% single-layer N-5 NG LiPF₆ PEGDME 710 >65% single-layer N-6 NG LiPF₆ EC + PC 672 >60% single-layer N-7 NG LiClO₄ PC 630 >45% single-layer

Comparative Example 3: Conventional Hummers Method

Graphite oxide was prepared by oxidation of natural graphite with sulfuric acid, nitrate, and potassium permanganate according to the method of Hummers [U.S. Pat. No. 2,798,878, Jul. 9, 1957]. Upon completion of the reaction (10 hours allowed), the mixture was poured into deionized water and filtered. The sample was then washed with 5% HCl solution to remove most of the sulfate ions and residual salt and then repeatedly rinsed with deionized water until the pH of the filtrate was approximately 5. The intent was to remove all sulfuric and nitric acid residue out of graphite interstices. The slurry was spray-dried and stored in a vacuum oven at 65° C. for 24 hours. The interlayer spacing of the resulting powder was determined by the Debey-Scherrer X-ray technique to be approximately 0.75 nm (7.5 Å), indicating that graphite has been converted into graphite oxide (Stage-1 and Stage-2 GICs). The dried, intercalated compound was placed in a quartz tube and inserted into a horizontal tube furnace pre-set at 950° C. for 35 seconds. The exfoliated worms were mixed with water and then subjected to a mechanical shearing treatment using a high-shear dispersion machine for 20 minutes. The resulting graphene sheets were found to have a thickness of 1-7.2 nm.

Example 4: NGPs from Short Carbon Fiber Segments

The procedure was similar to that used in Example 1, but the starting material was graphite fibers chopped into segments with 0.2 mm or smaller in length prior to electrochemical intercalation by an electrolyte of NaClO₄+PC/EC. The diameter of carbon fibers was approximately 12 μm. After intercalation and exfoliation at 900° C. for 30 seconds, the graphene platelets exhibit an average thickness of 6.7 nm. Electrochemical re-intercalation of these intermediate-thickness NGPs with an electrolyte of NaClO₄+PC/EC and subsequent exfoliation of the dried re-intercalated compound resulted in the formation of ultra-thin NGPs with an average thickness of 1.1 nm.

Example 5: NGPs from Carbon Nano-Fibers (CNFs)

A powder sample of carbon nano-fibers was supplied from Applied Science, Inc. (ASI), Cedarville, Ohio. Approximately 1 gram of CNFs was subjected to electrochemical intercalations and exfoliations under conditions similar to those used in Example 1 (electrolyte of LiPF₆+PC/DEC). Ultra-thin NGPs with an average thickness of 1.2 nm were obtained. 

The invention claimed is:
 1. A method of producing isolated graphene sheets having an average thickness smaller than 30 nm directly from a layered graphite material having hexagonal graphene planes with an interlayer spacing, said method comprising: (a) forming an alkali metal ion-intercalated graphite compound by an electrochemical intercalation procedure which is conducted in an intercalation reactor, wherein said reactor comprises (i) a liquid solution electrolyte solution composed of a mixture of two alkali metal salts having different alkali metals dissolved in an organic solvent; (ii) an anode that comprises said layered graphite material as an active material in ionic contact with said liquid solution electrolyte; and (iii) a cathode in ionic contact with said liquid solution electrolyte, and wherein a current is imposed upon said cathode and said anode at a current density for a duration of time sufficient for effecting said electrochemical intercalation of alkali metal ions into said interlayer spacing, wherein said organic solvent is selected from tetraethylene glycol dimethylether (TEGDME), poly(ethylene glycol) dimethyl ether (PEGDME), diethylene glycol dibutyl ether (DEGDBE), 2-ethoxyethyl ether (EEE), sulfone, propyl formate (PF), fluoroethylene carbonate (FEC), vinylene carbonate (VC), allyl ethyl carbonate (AEC), a hydrofluoroether, or a combination thereof; and (b) exfoliating and separating said hexagonal graphene planes from said alkali metal ion-intercalated graphite compound using ultrasonication, thermal shock exposure, exposure to water solution, a combination thereof, or a combination thereof with a mechanical shearing treatment to produce said isolated graphene sheets.
 2. The method of claim 1 wherein at least one of said alkali metal salts is selected from sodium borofluoride (NaBF₄), potassium borofluoride (KBF₄), sodium hexafluoroarsenide, potassium hexafluoroarsenide, sodium trifluoro-methanesulfonate (NaCF₃S O₃), potassium trifluoro-metasulfonate (KCF₃SO₃), bis-trifluoromethyl sulfonylimide sodium (NaN(CF₃SO₂)₂), sodium trifluoromethanesulfonimide (NaTFSI), bis-trifluoromethyl sulfonylimide potassium (KN(CF₃SO₂)₂), a sodium ionic liquid salt, lithium hexafluoroarsenide (LiAsF₆), lithium trifluoro-methanesulfonate (LiCF₃SO₃), bis-trifluoromethyl sulfonylimide lithium (LiN(CF₃SO₂)₂), lithium bis(oxalato)borate (LiBOB), lithium oxalyldifluoroborate (LiBF₂C₂O₄), lithium nitrate (LiNO₃), Li-fluoroalkyl-phosphates (LiPF₃(CF₂CF₃)₃), lithium bisperfluoro ethylsulfonylimide (LiBETI), lithium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide, lithium bis(fluorosulfonyl)imide lithium trifluoromethanesulfonimide (LiTFSI), an ionic liquid lithium salt, or a combination thereof.
 3. The method of claim 1, wherein said layered graphite material contains graphite rock or mined graphite ore only, and said graphite rock or mined graphite is dispersed in the liquid solution at a concentration higher than 20% by weight.
 4. The method of claim 1, wherein said isolated graphene sheets comprise few-layer graphene having 2-10 hexagonal graphene planes.
 5. The method of claim 1, wherein said alkali metal ion-intercalated graphite compound comprises Stage-1, Stage-2, or a combination of Stage-1 and Stage-2 graphite intercalation compounds.
 6. The method of claim 1, further comprising a step of re-intercalating said isolated graphene sheets using an electrochemical or chemical intercalation method to obtain intercalated graphene sheets and a step of exfoliating and separating said intercalated graphene sheets to produce single-layer graphene sheets using ultrasonication, thermal shock exposure, exposure to water solution, mechanical shearing treatment, or a combination thereof.
 7. A method of producing isolated graphene sheets having an average thickness smaller than 30 nm directly from a layered graphite material having hexagonal graphene planes with an interlayer spacing, said method comprising: (a) forming an alkali metal ion-intercalated graphite compound by an electrochemical intercalation procedure which is conducted in an intercalation reactor, wherein said reactor comprises (i) a liquid solution electrolyte solution composed of a mixture of two alkali metal salts having different alkali metals dissolved in an organic solvent; (ii) an anode that comprises said layered graphite material as an active material in ionic contact with said liquid solution electrolyte; and (iii) a cathode in ionic contact with said liquid solution electrolyte, and wherein a current is imposed upon said cathode and said anode at a current density for a duration of time sufficient for effecting said electrochemical intercalation of alkali metal ions into said interlayer spacing, wherein said at least one of said alkali metal salts is selected from sodium hexafluoroarsenide, potassium hexafluoroarsenide, sodium trifluoro-methanesulfonate (NaCF₃SO₃), potassium trifluoro-methanesulfonate (KCF₃SO₃), bis-trifluoromethyl sulfonylimide sodium (NaN(CF₃SO₂)₂), sodium trifluoromethanesulfonimide (NaTFSI), bis-trifluoromethyl sulfonylimide potassium (KN(CF₃SO₂)₂), a sodium ionic liquid salt, lithium hexafluoroarsenide (LiAsF₆), bis-trifluoromethyl sulfonylimide lithium (LiN(CF₃SO₂)₂), lithium oxalyldifluoroborate (LiBF₂C₂O₄), Li-fluoroalkyl-phosphates (LiPF₃(CF₂CF₃)₃), lithium bisperfluoro-ethylsulfonylimide (LiBETI), lithium bis(fluorosulfonyl)imide, lithium trifluoromethanesulfonimide (LiTFSI), an ionic liquid lithium salt, or a combination thereof; and (b) exfoliating and separating said hexagonal graphene planes from said alkali metal ion-intercalated graphite compound using ultrasonication, thermal shock exposure, exposure to water solution, a combination thereof, or a combination thereof with a mechanical shearing treatment to produce said isolated graphene sheets.
 8. The method of claim 7, wherein said layered graphite material is selected from natural graphite, synthetic graphite, highly oriented pyrolytic graphite, graphite fiber, graphitic nano-fiber, graphite rock, or a combination thereof.
 9. The method of claim 7, wherein said layered graphite material contains graphite rock or mined graphite ore only, and no other graphite material is included in the anode or dispersed in the liquid solution.
 10. The method of claim 7, wherein said layered graphite material contains graphite rock or mined graphite ore only, and said graphite rock or mined graphite is dispersed in the liquid solution at a concentration higher than 20% by weight.
 11. The method of claim 7, wherein said isolated graphene sheets comprise single-layer graphene.
 12. The method of claim 7, wherein said alkali metal ion-intercalated graphite compound comprises Stage-1, Stage-2, or a combination of Stage-1 and Stage-2 graphite intercalation compounds.
 13. The method of claim 7, further comprising a step of re-intercalating said isolated graphene sheets using an electrochemical or chemical intercalation method to obtain intercalated graphene sheets and a step of exfoliating and separating said intercalated graphene sheets to produce single-layer graphene sheets using ultrasonication, thermal shock exposure, exposure to water solution, mechanical shearing treatment, or a combination thereof.
 14. The method of claim 7, wherein said layered graphite material comprises multiple graphite particles dispersed in said liquid solution electrolyte and disposed in an anode compartment, which multiple graphite particles are supported or confined by an anode current collector in electronic contact with said layered graphite material and wherein said anode compartment and said multiple graphite particles supported thereon or confined therein are not in electronic contact with said cathode.
 15. The method of claim 14, wherein said multiple graphite particles are clustered together to form a network of electron-conducting pathways.
 16. A method of producing isolated graphene sheets having an average thickness smaller than 10 nm directly from a layered graphite material having hexagonal graphene planes with an interlayer spacing, said method comprising: (a) forming an alkali metal ion-intercalated graphite compound in an electrochemical intercalation reactor, wherein said reactor comprises at least an anode, a cathode, and a liquid solution electrolyte in physical contact with both the anode and the cathode, wherein said liquid solution electrolyte is composed of a mixture of two alkali metal salts having different alkali metals dissolved in an organic solvent and said layered graphite material contains unpurified graphite ore or unpurified graphite mineral dispersed in said liquid solution electrolyte at a concentration higher than 20% by weight, wherein at least one of said alkali metal salts is selected from sodium borofluoride (NaBF₄), potassium borofluoride (KBF₄), sodium hexafluoroarsenide, potassium hexafluoroarsenide, sodium trifluoro-methanesulfonate (NaCF₃SO₃), potassium trifluoro-metasulfonate (KCF₃SO₃), bis-trifluoromethyl sulfonylimide sodium (NaN(CF₃SO₂)₂), sodium trifluoromethanesulfonimide (NaTFSI), bis-trifluoromethyl sulfonylimide potassium (KN(CF₃SO₂)₂), a sodium ionic liquid salt, lithium hexafluoroarsenide (LiAsF₆), lithium trifluoro-methanesulfonate (LiCF₃SO₃), bis-trifluoromethyl sulfonylimide lithium (LiN(CF₃SO₂)₂), lithium bis(oxalato)borate (LiBOB), lithium oxalyldifluoroborate (LiBF₂C₂O₄), lithium nitrate (LiNO₃), Li-fluoroalkyl-phosphates (LiPF₃(CF₂CF₃)₃), lithium bisperfluoro ethylsulfonylimide (LiBETI), lithium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide, lithium bis(fluorosulfonyl)imide lithium trifluoromethanesulfonimide (LiTFSI), an ionic liquid lithium salt, or a combination thereof, and wherein a current is imposed upon said cathode and said anode at a current density for a duration of time sufficient for effecting electrochemical intercalation of alkali metal ions into said interlayer spacing; and (b) exfoliating and separating said hexagonal graphene planes from said alkali metal ion-intercalated graphite compound using ultrasonication, thermal shock exposure, exposure to water solution, mechanical shearing treatment, or a combination thereof to produce said isolated graphene sheets.
 17. The method of claim 16 wherein said layered graphite material is selected from natural graphite, synthetic graphite, highly oriented pyrolytic graphite, graphite fiber, graphitic nano-fiber, graphite rock, or a combination thereof.
 18. The method of claim 16, wherein said organic solvent is selected from 1,3-dioxolane (DOL), 1,2-dimethoxyethane (DME), tetraethylene glycol dimethylether (TEGDME), poly(ethylene glycol) dimethyl ether (PEGDME), diethylene glycol dibutyl ether (DEGDBE), 2-ethoxyethyl ether (EEE), sulfone, sulfolane, ethyl propionate, methyl propionate, gamma-butyrolactone (γ-BL), acetonitrile (AN), ethyl acetate (EA), propyl formate (PF), methyl formate (MF), xylene, methyl acetate (MA), fluoroethylene carbonate (FEC), vinylene carbonate (VC), allyl ethyl carbonate (AEC), a hydrofloroether, or a combination thereof.
 19. The method of claim 16, wherein said layered graphite material contains graphite rock or mined graphite ore only, and no other graphite material is included in the anode or dispersed in the liquid solution.
 20. The method of claim 16, wherein said mechanical shearing treatment comprises using air milling, air jet milling, ball milling, rotating-blade mechanical shearing, or a combination thereof.
 21. The method of claim 16, wherein the imposing current provides a current density in the range of 1 to 600 A/m².
 22. The method of claim 16, wherein said thermal shock exposure comprises heating said intercalated graphite to a temperature in the range of 300-1,200° C. for a period of 15 seconds to 2 minutes.
 23. The method of claim 16, wherein the imposing current provides a current density in the range of 20 to 400 A/m².
 24. The method of claim 16, wherein said isolated graphene sheets comprise single-layer graphene.
 25. The method of claim 16, wherein said isolated graphene sheets comprise few-layer graphene having 2-10 hexagonal graphene planes.
 26. The method of claim 16, further comprising a step of re-intercalating said isolated graphene sheets using an electrochemical or chemical intercalation method to obtain intercalated graphene sheets and a step of exfoliating and separating said intercalated graphene sheets to produce single-layer graphene sheets using ultrasonication, thermal shock exposure, exposure to water solution, mechanical shearing treatment, or a combination thereof.
 27. The method of claim 16 wherein at least one of said alkali metal salts is selected from sodium borofluoride (NaBF₄), potassium borofluoride (KBF₄), sodium hexafluoroarsenide, potassium hexafluoroarsenide, sodium trifluoro-methanesulfonate (NaCF₃SO₃), potassium trifluoro-metasulfonate (KCF₃SO₃), bis-trifluoromethyl sulfonylimide sodium (NaN(CF₃SO₂)₂), sodium trifluoromethanesulfonimide (NaTFSI), bis-trifluoromethyl sulfonylimide potassium (KN(CF₃SO₂)₂), a sodium ionic liquid salt, lithium hexafluoroarsenide (LiAsF₆), lithium trifluoro-methanesulfonate (LiCF₃SO₃), bis-trifluoromethyl sulfonylimide lithium (LiN(C F₃SO₂)₂), lithium bis(oxalato)borate (LiBOB), lithium oxalyldifluoroborate (LiBF₂C₂O₄), lithium nitrate (LiNO₃), Li-fluoroalkyl-phosphates (LiPF₃(CF₂CF₃)₃), lithium bisperfluoro-ethylsulfonylimide (LiBETI), lithium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide, lithium bis(fluorosulfonyl)imide lithium trifluoromethanesulfonimide (LiTFSI), an ionic liquid lithium salt, or a combination thereof.
 28. The method of claim 16, wherein said layered graphite material comprises multiple graphite particles dispersed in said liquid solution electrolyte and disposed in an anode compartment, which multiple graphite particles are supported or confined by an anode current collector in electronic contact with said layered graphite material and wherein said anode compartment and said multiple graphite particles supported thereon or confined therein are not in electronic contact with said cathode.
 29. The method of claim 28, wherein said multiple graphite particles are clustered together to form a network of electron-conducting pathways. 